A NOTE ON “PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT IN UNIVERSITIES”

Manu Rajan

National Centre for Science Information.

(25 July 2005)

This paper points out the need for universities to demonstrate public accountability and the consequent need for better management information for higher education administrators. The concept of ‘performance indicators’ is introduced. Methodologies for institutional interdepartmental comparisons as well as comparisons with identical departments at other peer institutions are reviewed. A few national higher education performance models in other countries, as well as institution specific strategies used by universities in these countries, are also examined. Measures to be taken by the Indian Institute of Science for better management information to meet accountability requirements and better management of resources are outlined. The paper concludes with a note on the changes affecting the university and the effect on productivity measurement and development of performance indicators.

1. Introduction:

Much debate has been generated of late related to governmental funding, tuition costs and autonomy of institutes of higher learning in our country. Higher education has been criticized for failing to provide information that speaks to issues such as quality, productivity and accountability. Groups external to institutions of higher education are demanding clear, unambiguous descriptions of the ways colleges and universities conduct their business. Another development is the increasing number of independent rating agencies that have developed their own performance measures: the general public has, in recent years, become enamored with general publications that rank colleges and universities and suggest which of these are best. The appropriateness of the variables measured and the relative merits of the methodologies used in these rankings is questionable. However, these publications reach wide audiences and are given enough credibility that institutions worry about their relative position in the ranking. University performance indicators are being strongly advocated by governments, administrators and boards of governors across the world in order to demonstrate public accountability. There is great interest in ensuring that universities are accountable for the effective and efficient expenditure of scarce public funds. Moreover, there appears to be a perception that faculties frequently shape their activity to meet their own professional needs, as opposed to the needs and priorities of the institution that employs them. It is in their own interests that higher education institutions develop their own quantitative and qualitative information on institutional and faculty productivity and accountability in order to communicate and respond effectively to public criticism. In the process, universities are able to measure up on how well they are fulfilling their own declared mission. In addition, information on productivity at the departmental and individual faculty levels helps the management of institutions take decisions related to optimal allocation of resources. Higher education administrators have lacked the appropriate information to manage resources and ensure accountability: indeed, there is a compelling need for better management information to provide the essential direction.

The following sections detail the different ways in which universities and nations attempt to demonstrate public accountability and improved resource management in higher education through better management information. Section 2 introduces the concept of ‘performance indicators’, chalks out a history of performance measurement in universities and it’s shifting focus, and brings forth the main elements of the Delaware Study that deals with instructional costs and faculty productivity. This includes the construction of a ‘quantitative’ framework to assess teaching productivity and to tie it to academic budget and resource planning as also a checklist of ‘qualitative’ measures of faculty activity. It also includes ways in which departments at one institution could be compared with identical departments at other peer institutions through the use of the ‘benchmarking’ strategy. This section also includes a survey of national performance models in other countries as well as institution specific strategies. Section 3 deals with ways in which ‘quantitative’ benchmarking data can be used. Section 4 recognizes the fact that context is a crucial component in the examination of any quantitative information: understanding the qualitative dimension of teaching, research and service is important for assessing productivity. This section deals with establishing qualitative benchmarks in individual departments. Section 5 outlines the measures to be taken by the Indian Institute of Science for better management information to meet accountability and resource management requirements. The concluding part, Section 6, deals with the changes affecting the university system and the effect on productivity measurement and development of performance indicators.

2. A survey of current attempts at measuring performance in universities worldwide:

The need for qualitative and quantitative information on institutional, departmental and faculty productivity and accountability has led to interest in what are termed ‘performance indicators’. ‘Performance indicators’ has become part of the institutional research lexicon over the past several years. A ‘performance indicator’ is a statistic, number or qualitative description that indicates the extent to which the university system, an individual institution or some internal structure or process is performing as it ought to. Performance indicator development often employs an Input-Process-Outcome (IPO) framework. Inputs represent what universities start with – students, instructors, books and buildings. Process refers to what universities do with the inputs- programs and instructional processes such as curricula, workload, organization of teaching, faculty/student contact, class sizes. Outcomes are the cognitive and non-cognitive effects of the university experience on students- their knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and behavior including subsequent employment and incomes. A careful examination of the indicators followed by the major universities worldwide show that the measures are either input characteristics (grades of entering students, number of books in the library) or dubious process measures (class sizes, which are not strongly associated with student achievement and learning outcomes). (As an illustration, state-mandated performance measures for selected components of institutional activity in South Carolina in the US are attached in Appendix 1). Different institutions appear to be utilizing their own criteria and technique for self- assessment. Quite often an explicit statement of university goals, purposes, missions or objectives is the reference point. (The Internationalization strategic plan of James Cook University in Australia and the University of Iowa’s strategic indicators are attached in Appendix 2 and 3 respectively). Despite broad agreements on the validity of performance goals, there is no ‘one best’ model: context matters. ‘Performance’ is assessed through student measures such as degrees as well as measures related to faculty, staff, research, libraries, endowments and more. The measures may use over-time comparisons, peer comparisons, absolute standards or other means of comparison.

The Joint Commission on Accountability Reporting (JCAR) of the USA has attempted to describe what colleges do- including faculty activity - in terms of measurable institutional outputs. It attempts to talk in terms of productivity (student outcomes) rather than focus solely on input measures. But JCAR conventions tie faculty activity in general and instructional activity in particular to student outcomes alone and do not consider outcomes of research and public service activities that faculty are engaged in. Many laboratory and discussion sections that are required components of a course along with the credit bearing lecture section are common features of course offerings. And because they do not generate student credit hours, they are omitted from the JCAR ‘student credit hour analysis of instructional activity’. Later attempts have attempted to build a quantitative framework that (1) provides the information and data that deans and department chairs require to effectively manage instructional, personnel and fiscal resources and (2) addresses the apparent gaps in the JCAR method in a fashion that allows the information to be used not only for internal management purposes but to portray a more complete picture of faculty productivity to those outside higher education. The University of Delaware has carried out a study, now known as the Delaware study that focuses on instructional costs and faculty productivity at the academic discipline level of analysis. Other institutions have established measures that describe not only how much activity faculty are engaged in but how well faculty perform in those activities. Attempts are being made to effectively combine quantitative and qualitative data into a single reporting package. The new framework stipulates that faculty productivity in particular may be measured on 6 dimensions – research quantity (R-QN), research quality (R-QL), teaching quantity (T-QN), teaching quality (T-QL), service quantity (S-QN) , service quality (S-QL). Assessment on all these 6 areas can be at the national, university, institutional, departmental and individual faculty levels. A checklist of ‘qualitative’ measures of faculty activity is given below:

. Number of refereed publications within past 36 months

. Number of textbooks, reference books, novels or volumes of collected works within past 36 months

. Number of edited volumes within past 36 months

. Number of juried shows or performances within past 36 months

. Number of editorial positions held within past 36 months

. Number of externally funded contracts and grants received within past 36 months

. Number of professional conference papers and presentations within past 36 months

. Number of non-refereed publications within past 36 months

. Number of active memberships in professional associations and/or honor societies within past 36 months

. Number of faculty engaged in faculty development or curriculum development activity as part of their assigned workload

.Five-year undergraduate persistence and graduation rates for most recent cohort

. Most recent average student satisfaction scores for

. Quality of faculty academic advisement

. Out-of-class availability of faculty

. Overall quality of interaction with faculty

. Proportion of most recent graduating class finding curriculum-related employment within 12 months of commencement

. Proportion of students passing licensing, certification, or accreditation examinations related to academic major

. Proportion of most recent graduating class continuing to pursue further graduate or professional education

. Number of students engaged in undergraduate research with faculty mentor within past 12 months

. Number of students engaged in internships or practica under direct supervision of faculty over past 12 months

. Number of students who author or coauthor with a faculty mentor an article or chapter over past 36 months

. Number of students presenting or co-presenting with a faculty mentor a paper at a professional meeting

(Note: Not all of the variables enumerated above are appropriate for each and every department or program at an institution. These variables are attractive in that they not only describe measurable outputs from faculty activity but reveal information about the quality of those activities: a qualitative filter is being applied to the output number being reported. It is to be noted that faculty output also consists of presenting papers at meetings, writing white papers and providing public service. In addition, faculty spend extraordinary amounts of time developing curriculum materials and teaching strategies and engaging in other faculty development activities: faculty are expected to modernize teaching techniques to take advantage of current technology. That technology allows virtually asynchronous learning through the use of Internet-based teaching modules, twenty-four-hour e-mail communication with students and creation of learning assessment tools to measure the impact of technology on the quantity and quality of what is being learned. A paradigm shift is occurring whereby emphasis in developing curricular materials is to focus on learning as opposed to teaching. Any serious examination of the qualitative dimension of faculty productivity must acknowledge that faculty are increasingly being required to spend time coming to terms with and internalizing these teaching-learning paradigm shifts. The variables above take into consideration these aspects as well.)

The construction of a quantitative framework helps in getting an assessment of teaching productivity and to tie it in some meaningful way to academic budget and resource planning. The framework helps in adopting a reporting structure that provides a productivity-cost profile for each department or program at an institution. The profile brings together traditional and non-traditional measures of productivity and effectively links them with expenditure data. As colleges and universities attempt to encourage more interdisciplinary study and interdepartmental cooperation, it is imperative that workload be apportioned in a fashion consistent with fiscal resource allocation. The productivity-cost profile may be made up of 2 tables: one detailing the ‘Teaching workload data’ and the other the ‘Fiscal data’. The teaching workload data may include data on number of FTE (full- time equivalent) graduates, degrees granted, student credit hours taught, % credit hours taught by tenured faculty, % credit hours taught by other faculty, FTE students taught, FTE faculty and finally workload ratios such as student credit hours/FTE faculty and FTE students taught/ FTE faculty. (The concept of ‘full-time equivalency’ is new and takes into consideration the nuances related to teaching load). The ‘fiscal data’ table may contain data on total sponsored research/service, sponsored funds/FTE faculty on appointment, direct instructional expenditures, direct expense/student credit hours, direct expense/FTE students taught, earned income from instruction and earned income/direct instructional expense. The purpose of ratios of this sort is not to cast a department within the context of ‘empirical absolutes’ but rather to be used as tools of inquiry for framing policy questions such as:

. If teaching load ratios (student credit hours and FTE students taught per FTE faculty) are low, are research and service ratios (direct expenditures per FTE faculty on appointment) sufficiently high to provide additional contextual information as to how faculty are productively spending their time?

. If research and service expenditure ratios are declining over time, are teaching workloads increasing as an offset?

. If teaching load ratios are declining over time and instructional expenditure ratios are increasing, are there qualitative issues that can explain these trends (for example, smaller class size, additional faculty, shift in curricular emphases)?

It is important to examine data on a trend-line basis: any single year of data can be idiosyncratic. The data should be viewed over a trend line as quantitative barometers for framing larger policy questions as to how faculty in the unit are spending their time, whether they have achieved a balance between teaching, research and service that is appropriate to the mission of that department, and whether they are, in fact, as productive as they can be.

Some universities have adopted the ‘Balanced Scorecard’ approach in choosing their suite of performance indicators. These include the University of Edinburgh, the Open University of the UK, Glasgow Caledonian University, Napier University, University of California and Ohio State University. Developed by Prof. Robert S. Kaplan and Dr. David P. Norton at the Harvard Business School, the Balanced Scorecard was designed to improve current performance measurement systems. The Balanced Scorecard retains the historically widely-used financial measures and supplements these with measures on customer satisfaction, enhancement of internal processes and the creation of capabilities in employees and systems. The context in which it was created was one of corporate culture: the benefits of the approach are that it is based on a balanced set of indicators covering the entirety of a company’s mission and goals, not just financial indicators.

It is necessary to adapt the Balanced Scorecard approach for the not-for-profit sector, for example, by identifying financial measures that are appropriate for institutions of higher education.

The above dealt mainly with interdepartmental comparisons to enable university administrators to effectively manage instructional, personnel and financial resources. The data can be made even more meaningful if departments at one institution could be compared with identical departments at other peer institutions. Such a need triggered the Delaware study, which was a major national study of the productivity of America’s faculty. That study resulted in consistent and reliable benchmarking data that have been used in diverse and creative ways to better explain what faculty do, while providing better information for managing faculty resources and containing costs. These benchmarks can be used to make comparisons with institutional data in order to more fully understand how a college or university is using its resources and with what degree of economy and efficiency. They should not be used as tools for rewarding or penalizing a given institution’s academic departments or programs. Instead they are intended as tools for helping colleges and universities find out why their institutional data are similar to or different from the benchmarks. The benchmarks are indeed very powerful information tools. The Delaware study presents them in a variety of ways. They are presented in different analytical arrays. Research universities prefer to compare their departmental teaching loads, instructional costs and externally funded activity with those at other research universities. It makes little sense to do head-to-head comparisons between two very dissimilar departments or institutions- dissimilar in disciplinary orientation, in emphasis on undergraduate teaching and in volume of separately budgeted research. Benchmarks enable far more appropriate comparisons. It has been observed that when dealing with faculty teaching loads, benchmark data that displays productivity ratios (for example, student credit hours taught per FTE faculty, class sections taught per FTE faculty and FTE students taught per FTE faculty) is the one that provosts and deans rely on most. In the use of benchmarking data, tenured and tenure-track faculty are an appropriate starting point for analysis.

(The following gives an idea of how a ‘national benchmark’ may be calculated: All institutional responses for a given variable are summed, and an ‘initial mean’ is calculated. In order to prevent an aberrant piece of institutional data from exerting undue influence on the data set, discrete institutional responses are then examined to identify those that are more than two standard deviations above or below the initial mean. These responses are flagged as outliers and are excluded from further calculations. The remaining responses are then re-summed and a “refined mean” is computed. This refined mean then becomes the national benchmark.)

The imposition of performance models on institutions of higher education has become a widespread practice. National systems are in place in France, Britain, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Australia and New Zealand. In federations like Germany, the US and Canada, individual provinces and states have taken the initiative. Accountability and service improvement are common goals of all higher education performance models. But different national systems adopt different combinations of supplementary goals. These include stimulating internal and external institutional competition, verifying the quality of new institutions, assigning institutional status, justifying transfers of state authority to institutions and facilitating international comparisons. In England, The Higher Education Funding Council (HEFCE) set up a Performance Indicators Study Group (PISG) to develop indicators and benchmarks of performance. In the first stage of its study, the group focused on producing indicators for the government and funding councils that would also inform institutional management and governance. Its immediate priority was the publication of institutional level, output based indicators for research and teaching. Process indicators were rejected. By the time of its first report (PISG 1999), the group had prepared proposals for indicators relating to:

- participation of under-represented groups

- student progression

- learning outcomes and non-completion

- efficiency of learning and teaching

- student employment

- research output

- higher education links with industry

The group also developed a set of ‘context statistics’ for each indicator to take into account, for example, an institution’s student intake, its particular subject mix and the educational backgrounds of students. These will allow “ the results for any institution to be compared not with all institutions in the sector, but with the average for similar institutions.” The next stage of the study will look at the information needs of other stakeholders, particularly students and their advisers. The third stage will respond to a call from the Chancellor of the Exchequer to improve the indicators on student employment outcomes. The PISG acknowledges that performance indicators in higher education are “ complicated and often controversial” and that “ the interpretation of indicators is generally at least as difficult as their construction”. They note that performance indicators require agreement about the values (inputs) that make up the ratio, reliable data collection and a consensus that a higher ratio is “better” or “worse” than a lower ratio. It is claimed that no other country produces comparable indicators of higher education as the UK and that, therefore, no meaningful international comparison is possible based on their indicators. Netherlands as also many countries in Europe follow a ‘softer’ Dutch-style model, involving qualitative measures and far less prominence for performance indicators than in the UK and US. Thus, there seems to be no “ideal” model or mix. Gibbons predicts “new benchmarking methodologies and the production of a range of benchmarking studies right across the higher education sector” and the use of quality indicators to rank universities “by region, by country and even globally”.

The UK performance model also consists of a Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) whose purpose is to enable the higher education funding bodies to distribute public funds for research selectively on the basis of quality. The RAE uses performance indicators. Institutions conducting the best research receive a larger proportion of the available grant so that the infrastructure for the top level of research in the UK is protected and developed. The RAE assesses the quality of research in universities and colleges in the UK. It takes place every four to five years. The RAE provides quality ratings for research across all disciplines. Panels use a standard scale to award a rating for each submission. Ratings range from 1 to 5, according to how much of the work is judged to reach national or international levels of excellence. Outcomes are published and so provide public information on the quality of research in universities and colleges throughout the UK. This information is also helpful in guiding funding decisions in industry and commerce, charities and other organizations that sponsor research. It also gives an indication of the relative quality and standing of UK academic research. Furthermore, the RAE provides benchmarks that are used by institutions in developing and managing their research strategies.

Many colleges and universities have moved away from philosophical arguments about the public good derived from research and service activities. Instead they have opted to supplement those arguments with a language that speaks to both taxpayers and legislators - economic impact studies. Such studies examine revenues generated from tuition and from externally sponsored research or service contracts and grants as components of faculty activity. Economic impact studies are now fairly commonplace among the major US research universities :Ohio State University, University of North Carolina and Pennsylvania State University are good examples. An economic impact model can point out facts such as:

. Of the dollars… in total resources available to the institution annually, only 20 percent was in the form of state subsidies.

. The university acts as a good corporate citizen, using dollars… of its current expenditures for public service and extension activity.

. The total economic impact of university employees and students on the state economy is in excess of dollars… in taxable salaries and wages generated.

In India, the University Grants Commission has begun the Higher Education Information Systems Project to develop a ‘transparent and comprehensive’ information system on the following:

. Monitoring of grants

. Collection of relevant data from various institutions for statistical analysis consistent with international standards

. Recognition and management of institutions and programs based on their level of competence and performance

. Management of university and college admissions to bring transparency into the

process.

. Research project management

. Expertise and facilities database to improve the interface between academia and society.

(Performance Report for University of Toronto is attached in Appendix 4. This contains information on where the University of Toronto stands compared to major public research universities in North America on various measures such as research and scholarship, scholarly awards, library resources, technology transfer, retention rates in undergraduate programs, student satisfaction and resources. The report also compares the University with other ten largest research-intensive universities within Canada. It also includes trends over time. The performance report for University of Calgary is in Appendix 5).

3. Using quantitative benchmarking data:

A number of strategies are employed for using national benchmark data as a quantitative basis for academic planning and policymaking. The University of Delaware and the University of South Carolina use Delaware study data to prepare departmental profiles for their provost and academic deans. The University of South Carolina have extended their analysis by incorporating study data into a web-based warehouse. Within that Web-based framework, the university creates departmental profiles wherein departmental productivity and expenditure measures are compared with benchmarks for discrete groupings of a dozen or so peer institutions identified by the university as opposed to larger aggregate groupings such as “research universities”. Deans and department chairs at the university are expected to use these web-based comparisons as a component of their annual strategic planning process and to use them when justifying requests for modified funding levels. It has been possible over the years for the University of South Carolina to identify a customized peer group from among all the colleges and universities participating in the Delaware study. As a member of the Southern Universities Group, University of South Carolina receives the data from that consortium but is free to select additional peers. The peer group must be no smaller than five institutions, but the

upper limit of the peer group is defined by the requesting institution.

The University of Utah takes a somewhat different approach to benchmarking in that it focuses largely on a single measure- student credit hours taught per FTE faculty- and concentrates the analysis on two faculty groups : tenured and tenure-eligible faculty and other full-time faculty who are non-tenurable. The volume of teaching activity, as measured in terms of student credit hour generation within these two faculty categories and compared with national and customized Delaware study benchmarks, places departments in one of three groups : 1) highly productive 2) normal 3) underproductive. Departments that are ‘highly productive’ are advantaged in budget decisions, whereas ‘underproductive’ departments are disadvantaged and are targets for budget reductions. The University of Utah does not, however, make resource allocation and reallocation decisions solely on a single quantitative measure. A number of other quantitative and qualitative factors enter the budget decisions at that institution.

The push for discipline-specific data is likely to become more pronounced. With a secure Web server in place, the vast majority of the data collection and editing will take place within a web-based environment. And by granting institutions access to the full data set, it then becomes possible for a college or university to select different peer groups for different academic departments. Now a dean can look at the list of Delaware participants and choose the twelve that seem most appropriate for the physics department while selecting a different set of twelve or so institutions for chemistry and so on.

4.Qualitative benchmarking in individual departments:

Context is a crucial component in the examination of any quantitative information. A few characteristics like international reputation and the philanthropic support generated are not manifestly evident in a student-faculty ratio or assorted expenditure ratios. Understanding the qualitative dimension of teaching, research and service is crucial to a full picture of what faculty do and how productive they are. A number of data sources in the public domain contain benchmark data that can assist academic departments and programs in looking at the outputs of their faculty relative to those at other institutions. In considering where a departmental faculty is with regard to the overall quality of the academic program, as well as scholarly output of the faculty, Research-Doctoral Programs in the United States (Goldberg, Maher and Flattau, 1995) is an excellent starting point. It ranks the leading academic programs, by institution and by discipline, in the arts and humanities, engineering, physical sciences and mathematics, social and behavioral sciences, and the biological sciences. A comprehensive ranking of departmental faculties, by discipline within each of the fields listed gives an idea of the quality of faculty in a given institution’s departments. (The quality of faculty in a given institution’s departments is assessed from responses to the National Survey of Graduate Faculty. As this database covers only the American programs, programs and faculty of institutions in India are not covered: however, institutions like IISc can make use of this database and take further steps to assess the quality of their own academic training programs vis-à-vis those listed here.)

To examine faculty scholarly output, the National Research Council of the US looked specifically at papers published in refereed journals and monographs produced by recognized publishing houses; they also noted the impact of publications on the field, as evidenced by the number of times they were cited. These data are accessible in computerized form in the Institute for Scientific Information’s (ISI) US University Science Indicators database. This database contains summary publication and citation statistics that reflect scholarly production at over one hundred major universities throughout the United States. This enables institutions to identify the productivity of their own academic departments within the context of the hierarchical rankings of the major national programs in the field – often those that faculty aspire to join as peers.

Another benchmarking resource is the NSF’s web-based WEB CASPAR (Computer Aided Science Policy Analysis and Research) which allows for the retrieval and rank ordering of data, by institution and by discipline related to number of graduate students and post-doctoral appointments, volume of degrees awarded annually and volume of funding. WEB CASPAR provides a three-year trend data consisting of surveys that represent a rich data source for benchmarking externally funded research activity. Institutions aspiring to the top one hundred institutions in externally sponsored research and development funds or those wishing to know their relative position in the higher education community with respect to externally funded research find this an excellent benchmarking source.

Even with the above sources, the quality dimension in research and service is difficult to assess in a comprehensive fashion - the difficulty for most colleges and universities is in collecting data on the qualitative measures outlined earlier, over time, from a pool of institutions sufficiently large and comparable in mission to constitute an appropriate benchmarking pool. The Delaware study hopes to fill this gap in qualitative data sharing in the same manner that it has succeeded for quantitative data sharing.

5.Measures to be taken by Indian Institute of Science:

. Establish an Office of Institutional Research as in many American universities.

. Frame explicit statements of institute mission, goals, objectives

. Develop a suite of performance indicators / quantitative and qualitative barometers to enable the institute administration to make interdepartmental and other comparisons and effectively manage resources.

. Decide – Whom do we compare ourselves with? (those with similar size, with a similar teaching and research pattern, in a similar sized country….?)

. Decide on and make use of national benchmarks of other nations depending on which other universities we want to compare ourselves with. Choose an institution to provide a benchmark for success with the ultimate intention of comparing the performance of Indian Institute of Science with this institution(s) in the areas where they currently exceed us: indicators could be turned into targets in time. (Realistic goals can be set by employing benchmarks already achieved in other institutions).

6.Conclusion:

As it becomes more accountable in a ‘knowledge society’, there are doubts whether the university can survive in its traditional form. Survival may depend on a much broader definition of accountability, one that encompasses public and civic commitment. According to Delanty G., the best way to guarantee the future of the university is to reposition it at the heart of the public sphere, “ establishing strong links with the public culture, providing the public with enlightenment about the mechanisms of power and seeking alternative forms of social organization.” There is a perception that the responsibility of researchers is to make their findings available in the public sphere through publication. It is then the job of society to use this knowledge. If this view of accountability were sufficient, it would greatly simplify the job of developing performance indicators for research organizations: publications alone would be enough. Unfortunately, that indicator will not satisfy accountability demanding constituencies. According to Cozzent and Melkers, “ state S&T programs collect publication information, but find that job creation is the primary indicator state legislators want to see”. Many national science policies continue to be dominated by what has been called ‘linear thinking’. In the models which emerge from this thinking, science functions as the source of technology and the engine of economic growth. In the linear model, the universities and some government research laboratories are paramount, being the institutions which carry out most of the basic research. However, it is now being recognized that ‘knowledge production’ is increasingly becoming ‘distributed’: knowledge production has spread from academia into all those institutions that seek social legitimatization through recognizable competence and beyond. Knowledge production is increasingly a socially distributed process. The university, in the emerging regime, must still be an instrument for the development of science. The point is that it is no longer either the only or even the primary institution on the cognitive landscape. The emergence of a socially distributed knowledge production system brings to the fore the question of the relationships between the university and the other knowledge producers. Universities will need to become porous institutions, more revolving doors are required which allow academics out and others in. Such development if carried out on a significant level cannot but touch questions of career development and reward structures, and with this challenge the existing structures. Many OECD countries are increasingly putting resources into the diffusion of existing information. In several countries, new organizational arrangements for knowledge diffusion have been created. In Sweden, for instance, Competence Centers affiliated to universities have been established as a strategic resource for the technological renewal of industry. This is evident in institutions in India too.

The most exciting area of faculty productivity will be in curriculum development, especially in view of the impact of technology on campuses. New teaching paradigms such as problem-based learning (PBL) are transforming the ways faculty teach and students learn on campuses. The volume of credit-hour production will be supplemented with information on how and how well those credit hours are delivered. PBL is a means of instruction based on complex problems that have real-world implications. The challenge to faculty is to provide instructional techniques that meet the real cognitive and skill needs of students. Measuring what and how students learn is another faculty product that is undergoing significant transformation. A letter grade used to be the sole indicator for assessing what students learned in courses. There are well-established psychometric instruments in critical thinking, problem-solving and communicating, among other skills. Web-based electronic portfolios that integrate and synthesize the knowledge gained through a broad cross-section of courses is yet another tool for measuring student learning. However, it will be the individual faculty member who will bear ultimate responsibility for assessing cognitive gains in students. The development of appropriate tools for making those assessments is quickly becoming part of the overall productivity of faculty in the twenty-first century. Development of performance indicators for universities has to necessarily take into account all of the above factors.

Reference: (to be listed)

Middaugh M.F. 2001. Understanding Faculty Productivity: Standards and Benchmarks for Colleges and Universities. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

John de la Mothe.2001. Science, Technology and Governance. London. Continuum.

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Manu Rajan

National Centre for Science Information

Indian Institute of Science

Bangalore 560 012

email: manu.rajan134@gmail.com

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A NOTE ON “PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT IN UNIVERSITIES”